Vet Med - Czech, 2016, 61(9):475-496 | DOI: 10.17221/19/2016-VETMED

Serum proteins and their diagnostic utility in veterinary medicine: a reviewReview

C. Tothova, O. Nagy, G. Kovac
University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy, Kosice, Slovak Republic

The evaluation of serum proteins and their electrophoretic pattern is a well-established laboratory method in the diagnosis of many diseases in humans, which has replaced the biochemical determination of the concentrations of albumin and the ratio of albumin to globulins. The measurement of serum proteins may be an important diagnostic tool for the detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of various diseases and pathological processes. The results of serum protein electrophoresis can be one of the most useful diagnostic aids in a wide spectrum of diseases, including infectious and inflammatory diseases, renal or gastrointestinal disorders, immunodeficiency states, as well as paraproteinaemias caused by lymphoid or plasma cell neoplasia. Although many studies have been carried out to determine the usefulness of the determination of serum proteins and their electrophoretic pattern in various disease conditions and disorders also in animals, serum protein evaluation is still a relatively little-used diagnostic tool in veterinary medicine. In this article, methods of serum protein determination, their diagnostic utility in animal care practice and their different patterns in dysproteinaemias and paraproteinaemias are reviewed.

Keywords: animals; serum proteins; electrophoresis; diagnosis; dysproteinaemia; paraproteinaemia

Published: September 30, 2016  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Tothova C, Nagy O, Kovac G. Serum proteins and their diagnostic utility in veterinary medicine: a review. Vet Med - Czech. 2016;61(9):475-496. doi: 10.17221/19/2016-VETMED.
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Abate O, Zanatta R, Malisano T, Dotta U (2000): Canine serum protein patterns using high-resolution electrophoresis (HRE). The Veterinary Journal 159, 150-154. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Ahmed FE (2009): Sample preparation and fractionation for proteome analysis and cancer biomarker discovery by mass spectrometry. Journal of Separation Science 32, 771-798. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    3. Akdogan Kaymaz A, Bakirel U, Gonul R, Tan H, Vurusaner C (1999): Serum protein electrophoresis in dogs with intestinal parasites. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences 23, 457-459.
    4. Alberghina D, Casella S, Vazzana I, Ferrantelli V, Giannetto C, Piccione G (2010): Analysis of serum proteins in clinically healthy goats (Capra hircus) using agarose gel electrophoresis. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 39, 317-321. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Alberghina D, Giannetto C, Vazzana I, Ferrantelli V, Piccione G (2011): Reference intervals for total protein concentration, serum protein fractions, and albumin/ globulin ratios in clinically healthy dairy cows. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 23, 111-114. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Aldred AR, Schreiber G (1993): The negative acute phase protein. In: Mackiewicz I, Kushner I, Baumann H (eds): Acute Phase Proteins. Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Clinical Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 21-37. Go to original source...
    7. Anderson NL, Anderson NG (2002): The human plasma proteome. Molecular and Cellular Proteomics 1, 845-867. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    8. Apaydin B, Dede S (2010): Electrophoretic profile of serum protein fractions from sheep naturally infected with Babesia ovis. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire 161, 57-60.
    9. Azim W, Azim S, Ahmed K, Shafi H, Rafi T, Luqman M phoresis. Biomedica 20, 40-44.
    10. Baba K, Itamoto K, Amimoto A, Kitagawa K, Hiraoka H, Mizuno T, Sato H, Okuda M (2012): Ehrlichia canis infection in two dogs that emigrated from endemic areas. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 74, 775-778. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    11. Baker RJ, Valli VEO (1988): Electrophoretic and immunoelectrophoretic analysis of feline serum proteins. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 52, 308-314.
    12. Beck FK, Rosenthal TC (2002): Prealbumin: a marker for nutritional evaluation. American Family Physician 65, 1575-1578.
    13. Blum JW (2006): Nutritional physiology of neonatal calves. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 90, 1-11. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Bossuyt X (2006): Advances in serum protein electrophoresis. Advances in Clinical Chemistry 42, 43-80. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. Boyer RF (ed.) (2000): Modern Experimental Biochemistry. 3rd edn. Addison Wesley Longman Inc., California. 480 pp.
    16. Brackeen GL, Dover JS, Long CL (1989): Serum albumin. Differences in assay specificity. Nutrition in Clinical Practice 4, 203-205. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    17. Bradford MM (1976): A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye-binding. Analytical Biochemistry 72, 248-254. Go to original source...
    18. Briscoe JA, Rosenthal KL, Shofer FS (2010): Selected complete blood cell count and plasma protein electrophoresis parameters in pet psittacine birds evaluated for illness. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 24, 131-137. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    19. Brodzki P, Kostro K, Krakowski L, Marczuk J (2015): Inflammatory cytokine and acute phase protein concentrations in the peripheral blood and uterine washings of cows with subclinical endometritis in the late postpartum period. Veterinary Research Communications 39, 143-149. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    20. Brown JS, Nabity MB, Brock R (2010): Comparison of urine sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) with renal histological findings and clinicopathologic data in dogs with renal diseases. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 3, 556.
    21. Burtis CA, Ashwood ER (eds) (2001): Tietz Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry. 5th edn. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia. 1091 pp.
    22. Camacho AT, Guitian FJ, Pallas E, Gestal JJ, Olmeda S, Goethert H, Telford S, Spielman A (2005): Serum protein response and renal failure in canine Babesia annae infection. Veterinary Research 36, 713-722. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    23. Camus MS, Krimer PM, LeRoy BE, Almy FS (2010): Evaluation of the positive predictive value of serum protein electrophoresis beta-gamma bridging for hepatic disease in three domestic animal species. Veterinary Pathology 47, 1064-1070. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    24. Ceron JJ, Martinez-Subiela S (2004): An automated spectrophotometric method for measuring canine ceruloplasmin in serum. Veterinary Research 35, 671-679. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    25. Ceron JJ, Caldin M, Martinez-Subiela S (2010): Electrophoresis and acute phase protein measurement. In: Douglas J, Weiss K, Wardrop J (eds): Schalm's Veterinary Hematology. 6th edn. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Ames. 1157-1161.
    26. Chhabra S, Bansal F, Saikia B, Minz RW (2013): Bisalbuminemia: A rarely encountered protein anomaly. Journal of Laboratory Physicians 5, 145-146. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    27. Chiaradia E, Avellini L, Tartaglia M, Gaiti A, Just I, Scoppetta F, Czentnar Z, Pich A (2012): Proteomic evaluation of sheep serum proteins. BMC Veterinary Research 8, 66. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Chrisman CL (1992): Cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 22, 781-810. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Cooper ES, Wellman ML, Carsillo ME (2009): Hyperalbuminemia associated with hepatocellular carcinoma in a dog. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 38, 516-520. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    30. Cray C (1997): Plasma protein electrophoresis: An update. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians. 209-212.
    31. Cray C, Tatum LM (1998): Applications of protein electrophoresis in avian diagnostics. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 12, 4-10.
    32. Crisman MV, Scarratt WK, Zimmerman KL (2008): Blood proteins and inflammation in the horse. Veterinary Clinics: Equine Practice 24, 285-297. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    33. Crivellente F, Bonato M, Cristofori P (2008): Analysis of mouse, rat, dog, marmoset, and human serum proteins by capillary electrophoresis: comparison with agarose gel electrophoresis. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 37, 73-78. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    34. Cunningham-Rundles C, Knight AK (2007): Common variable immune deficiency: reviews, continued puzzles, and a new registry. Immunology Research 38, 78-86. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    35. Cyrillo FC, Leal ML do R, Benesi FJ, Della Libera AMM de P (2006): Dynamics of serum proteins during the estrous cycle of goats bred in Brazil and naturally infected by caprine arthritis encephalitis virus. Revista Arquivos do Instituto Biologico 73, 41-44. Go to original source...
    36. Da Silva MAO, Zezzi Arruda MA (2006): Mechanization of the Bradford reaction for the spectrophotometric determination of total proteins. Analytical Biochemistry 351, 155-157. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    37. De Sain-van der Velden MGM, Rabelink TJ, Reijngoud DJ, Gadellaa MM, Voorbij HAM, Stellaard F, Kaysen GA (1998): Plasma α2 macroglobulin is increased in nephrotic patients as a result of increased synthesis alone. Kidney International 54, 530-535. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    38. Diogenes PVA, Suassuna ACD, Ahid SMM, Soto-Blanco B (2010): Serum protein electrophoretic profile of goats infected with Haemonchus contortus. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 9, 1603-1606. Go to original source...
    39. Dispenzieri A, Gertz MA, Therneau TM, Kyle RA (2001): Retrospective cohort study of 148 patients with polyclonal gammopathy. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 76, 476-487. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    40. Dobrovolskaia E, Gam A, Slater JE (2006): Competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) can be a sensitive method for the specific detection of small quantities of allergen in a complex mixture. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 36, 525-530. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. Don BR, Kaysen G (2004): Serum albumin: relationship to inflammation and nutrition. Seminars in Dialysis 17, 432-437. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    42. Doumas BT, Peters Jr T (1997): Serum and urine albumin: a progress report on their measurement and clinical significance. Clinica Chimica Acta 258, 3-20. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    43. Doumas BT, Bayse DD, Carter RJ, Peters Jr T, Schaffer R (1981): A candidate reference method for determination of total protein in serum. I. Development and validation. Clinical Chemistry 27, 1642-1650. Go to original source...
    44. Eckersall PD (2008): Proteins, proteomics, and the dysproteinemias. In: Kaneko JJ, Harvey JW, Bruss ML (eds): Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 6th edn. Elsevier Academic Press, California. 117-155. Go to original source...
    45. Eckersall PD, Bell R (2010): Acute phase proteins: Biomarkers of infection and inflammation in veterinary medicine. The Veterinary Journal 185, 23-27. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    46. Eckersall PD, Duthie S, Safi S, Moffatt D, Horadagoda NU, Doyle S, Parton R, Bennett D, Fitzpatrick JL (1999): An automated biochemical assay for haptoglobin: prevention of interference from albumin. Comparative Haematology International 9, 117-124. Go to original source...
    47. Edwards DF, Parker JW, Wilkinson JE, Helman RG (1993): Plasma cell myeloma in the horse. A case report and literature review. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 7, 169-176. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    48. Ejaz AA, Krishna M, Wasiluk A, Knight JD (2004): Bisalbuminemia in chronic kidney disease. Clinical and Experimental Nephrology 8, 270-273. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    49. Ernst O, Zor T (2010): Linearization of the Bradford protein assay. Journal of Visualized Experiments 38, 1918. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    50. Errico G, Giordano A, Paltrinieri S (2012): Diagnostic accuracy of electrophoretic analysis of native or defibrinated plasma using serum as a reference sample. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 41, 529-540. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    51. Esmaeilnejad B, Tavassoli M, Asri-Rezaei S, Dalir-Naghadeh B, Pourseyed SH (2014): Evaluation of serum total protein concentration and protein fractions in sheep naturally infected with Babesia ovis. Comparative Clinical Pathology 23, 151-155. Go to original source...
    52. Evans EW, Duncan JR (2003): Proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. In: Latimer KW, Mahaffey EA, Prasse KW (eds): Duncan and Prasse's Veterinary Laboratory Medicine Clinical Pathology. 4th edn. Blackwell Publishing, Ames. 162-192.
    53. Evans TW (2002): Review article: albumin as a drug: biological effects of albumin unrelated to oncotic pressure. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 16, 6-11. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    54. Facchini RV, Bertazzolo W, Zuliani D, Bonfanti U, Caldin M, Avallone G, Roccabianca P (2010): Detection of biclonal gammopathy by capillary zone electrophoresis in a cat and a dog with plasma cell neoplasia. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 39, 440-446. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    55. Fayos M, Couto CG, Iaybik MC, Wellman ML (2005): Serum protein electrophoresis in retired racing Greyhounds. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 34, 397-400. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    56. Fazio F, Assenza A, Tosto F, Casella S, Piccione G, Caola G (2011): Training and haematochemical profile in thoroughbreds and standardbreds, a longitudinal study. Livestock Science 141, 221-226. Go to original source...
    57. Fernandez SY, Jesus EEV, Paule BJA, Uzeda RS, Almeida MAO, Guimaraes JE (2006): Proteinogram of alpine goat naturally infected by gastrointestinal parasites. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinaria e Zootecnia 58, 279-282. Go to original source...
    58. Firkin R, Rush B (1997): Interpretation of biochemical tests for iron deficiency: diagnostic difficulties related to limitations of individual tests. Australian Prescriber 20, 74-76. Go to original source...
    59. Friedrichs WE, Navarijoashbaugh AL, Bowman BH, Yang F (1995): Expression and inflammatory regulation of haptoglobin gene in adipocytes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 209, 250-256. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    60. Gabay C, Kushner I (1999): Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation. New England Journal of Medicine 340, 448-454. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    61. Gama FGV, Santana AE, de Campos Filho E, da Silva Nogueira CA (2007): Agarose gel electrophoresis of cerebrospinal fluid proteins of dogs after sample concentration using a membrane microconcentrator technique. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 36, 85-88. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    62. Gan SD, Patel KR (2013): Enzyme immunoassay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 133, e12. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    63. George JW (2001): The usefulness and limitations of hand-held refractometers in veterinary laboratory medicine: An historical and technical review. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 30, 201-210. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    64. George JW, O'Neill SL (2001): Comparison of refractometer and biuret methods for total protein measurement in body cavity fluids. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 30, 16-18. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    65. Gerou-Ferriani M, McBrearty AR, Burchmore RJ, Jayawardena KGI, Eckersall PD, Morris JS (2011): Agarose gel serum protein electrophoresis in cats with and without lymphoma and preliminary results of tandem mass fingerprinting analysis. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 40, 159-173. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    66. Giordano A, Paltrinieri S (2010): Interpretation of capillary zone electrophoresis compared with cellulose acetate and agarose gel electrophoresis: reference intervals and diagnostic efficiency in dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 39, 464-473. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    67. Giori L, Tricomi FM, Zatelli A, Roura X, Paltrinieri S (2011): High-resolution gel electrophoresis and sodium dodecyl sulphate-agarose gel electrophoresis on urine samples for qualitative analysis of proteinuria in dogs. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 23, 682-690. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    68. Gornall AG, Bardawill CJ, David MN (1949): Determination of serum proteins by means of the Biuret reaction. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 177, 751-766. Go to original source...
    69. Grauer GF (2005): Canine glomerulonephritis: new thoughts on proteinuria and treatment. Journal of Small Animal Practice 46, 469-478. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    70. Green SA, Jenkins SJ, Clark PA (1982): A comparison of chemical and electrophoretic methods of serum protein determinations in clinically normal domestic animals of various ages. The Cornell Veterinarian 72, 416-426.
    71. Grunberg W, Donkin SS, Constable PD (2011): Periparturient effects of feeding a low dietary cation-anion difference diet on acid-base, calcium, and phosphorus homeostasis and on intravenous glucose tolerance test in high producing dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 94, 727-745. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    72. Gundasheva D (2015): Electrophoretic analysis of serum proteins in strenuously trained horses revaccinated against equine herpes virus 4/1 and equine influenza virus. Veterinarija i Zootechnika 69, 18-25. Go to original source...
    73. Gupta A, Stockham SL (2014): Negative interference of icteric serum on a bichromatic biuret total protein assay. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 43, 422-427. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    74. Gupta S, Ahern K, Nakhl F, Forte F (2011): Clinical usefulness of haptoglobin levels to evaluate hemolysis in recently transfused patients. Advances in Hematology, DOI: 10.1155/2011/389854. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    75. Hamilton JA, Benson MD (2001): Transthyretin: a review from a structural perspective. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 58, 1491-1521. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    76. Hammon HM, Schiessler G, Nussbaum A, Blum JW (2002): Feed intake patterns, growth performance and metabolic and endocrine traits in calves fed unlimited amounts of colostrums and milk by automate strating in the neonatal period. Journal of Dairy Science 85, 3352-3362. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    77. Hankins J (2006): The role of albumin in fluid and electrolyte balance. Journal of Infusion Nursing 29, 260-265. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    78. Harris RI, Kohn J (1974): The pre-albumin fraction: A useful parameter in the interpretation of routine protein electrophoresis. Journal of Clinical Pathology 27, 986- 989. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    79. Harrus S, Waner T, Avidar Y, Bogin E, Peh HC, Bark H (1996): Serum protein alterations in canine ehrlichiosis. Veterinary Parasitology 66, 241-249. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    80. Hogan I, Doherty M, Fagan J, Kennedy E, Conneely M, Brady P, Ryan C, Lorenz I (2015): Comparison of rapid laboratory tests for failure of passive transfer in the bovine. Irish Veterinary Journal 68, 18-27. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    81. Ingenbleek Y, Young V (1994): Transthyretin (prealbumin) in health and disease: Nutritional implications. Annual Review of Nutrition 14, 495-533. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    82. Issaq HJ, Conrads TP, Janini GM, Veenstra TD (2002): Methods for fractionation, separation and profiling of proteins and peptides. Electrophoresis 23, 3048-3061. Go to original source...
    83. Jackson DA, Elsawa SF (2015): Factors regulating immunoglobulin production by normal and disease-associated plasma cells. Biomolecules 5, 20-40. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    84. Jacobs RM, Valli VE, Wilkie BN (1980): Serum electrophoresis and immunoglobulin concentrations in cows with lymphoma. American Journal of Veterinary Research 41, 1942-1946.
    85. Jaillardon L, Fournel-Fleury C (2011): Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia in a dog with a bleeding diathesis. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 40, 351-355. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    86. Jain S, Gautam V, Naseem S (2011): Acute phase proteins: As diagnostic tool. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences 3, 118-127. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    87. Janicki B, Kochowicz A, Buzala M, Krumrych W (2013): Variability of selected biochemical parameters in young stallions during the 100-day performance test. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 33, 1136-1141. Go to original source...
    88. Janku L, Pavlata L, Misurova L, Filipek J, Pechova A, Dvorak R (2011): Levels of protein fractions in blood serum of periparturient goats. Acta Veterinaria Brno 80, 185-190. Go to original source...
    89. Johns JL (2015): Alterations in blood proteins. In: Smith BP (ed.): Large Animal Internal Medicine. 5th edn. Elsevier, St Louis. 386-392.
    90. Johnson AM, Merlini G, Sheldon J, Ichibara K (2007): Clinical indications for plasma protein assay: transthyretin (prealbumin) in inflammation and malnutrition. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 45, 419-426.
    91. Joven J, Cliville X, Camps J, Espinel E, Simo J, Vilella E, Oliver A (1997): Plasma protein abnormalities in nephritic syndrome: effect on plasma colloid osmotic pressure and viscosity. Clinical Chemistry 43, 1223-1231. Go to original source...
    92. Kaneko JJ (1997): Serum proteins and the dysproteinemias. In: Kaneko JJ (ed.): Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. 5th edn. Academic Presss, London. 117-138. Go to original source...
    93. Karcher RA, Nuttall KL (2001): Electrophoresis. In: Burtis CA, Ashwood ER (eds): Tietz Fundamentals in Clinical Chemistry. 5th edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia. 121- 132.
    94. Keay G, Doxey DL (1981): Species characteristics of serum proteins demonstrated after agarose gel electrophoresis. Veterinary Research Communications 5, 263-270. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    95. Keay G, Doxey DL (1982): A comparison of the serum protein electrophoretic patterns of young and adult animals. Veterinary Research Communications 5, 271-276. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    96. Kennedy S (2001): Proteomic profiling from human samples: the body fluid alternative. Toxicology Letters 120, 379-384. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    97. Kent JE (1987): Specific serum protein changes associated with primary and secondary Strongylus vulgaris infections in pony yearlings. Equine Veterinary Journal 19, 133-137. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    98. Kent JE, Roberts CA (1990): Serum protein changes in four horses with monoclonal gammopathy. Equine Veterinary Journal 22, 373-376. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    99. Keren DF (ed.) (2003): Protein Electrophoresis in Clinical Diagnosis. Edward Arnold Ltd., London. 63-108. Go to original source...
    100. Keren DF, Alexanian R, Goeken JA, Gorevic PD, Kyle RA, Tomar RH (1999): Guidelines for clinical and laboratory evaluation of patients with monoclonal gammopathies. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 123, 106-107. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    101. Kessler MA, Meinitzer A, Wolfbeis OS (1997): Albumin blue 580 fluorescence assay for albumin. Analytical Biochemistry 248, 180-182. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    102. Killip S, Bennett JM, Chambers MD (2007): Iron deficiency anemia. American Family Physician 75, 671-678.
    103. Kobayashi S, Okamura N, Kamoi K, Sugita O (1995): Bisalbumin (fast and slow type) induced by human pancreatic juice. Annals of Clinical Biochemistry 32, 63-67. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    104. Kodner C (2009): Nephrotic syndrome in adults: Diagnosis and management. American Family Physician 80, 1129- 1134.
    105. Kohn J (1957): A cellulose acetate supporting medium for zone elctrophoresis. Clinica Chimica Acta 2, 297. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    106. Krimer PM (2011): Generating and interpreting test results: test validity, quality control, reference values, and basic epidemiology. In: Latimer KS (ed.): Duncan and Prasse's Vaterinary Laboratory Medicine: Clinical Pathology. 5th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester. 365-382.
    107. Kyle RA (1994): The monoclonal gammopathies. Clinical Chemistry 40, 2154-2161. Go to original source...
    108. Kyle RA, Therneau TM, Rajkumar SV, Larson DR, Plevak MF, Offord JR, Dispenzieri A, Katzmann JA, Melton LJ (2006): Prevalence of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance. New England Journal of Medicine 354, 1362-1369. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    109. Lee JS (2012): Albumin for end-stage liver disease. Korean Journal of Internal Medicine 27, 13-19. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    110. Lehmann R, Koch M, Voelter W, Haring HU, Liebich HM (1997): Routine serum protein analysis by capillary zone electrophoresis: Clinical evaluation. Chromatographia 45, 390-396. Go to original source...
    111. Lien TC, Wang JH (1995): Rapid differentiation of pathogenesis in patients with pulmonary edema by protein measurement with refractometer. Chinese Medical Journal (Taipei) 56, 298-304.
    112. Lin AV (2015): Direct ELISA. Methods in Molecular Biology 1318, 61-67. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    113. Lobetti RG, Mohr AJ, Dippenaar T, Myburgh E (2000): A preliminary study on the serum protein response in canine babesiosis. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 71, 38-42. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    114. Lowry OH, Rosebrough NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ (1951): Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193, 265-275. Go to original source...
    115. Lumeij JT, de Bruijne JJ, Kwant MM (1990): Comparison of different methods of measuring protein and albumin in pigeon sera. Avian Pathology 19, 255-261. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    116. Luraschi P, Dea E, Franzini C (2003): Capillary zone electrophoresis of serum proteins: effects of changes analytical conditions. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 41, 782-786. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    117. Maciel RM, dos Anjos Lopes ST, Mazzanti CMA, Costa MM, Salbego FZ, Martins DB, Franca RT, Teixeira LV, Zanette RA (2012): A hematologic and electrophoretic study in puppies vaccinated against canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus. Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 40, 1011-1016.
    118. Mackiewicz A (1997): Acute phase proteins and transformed cells. International Review of Cytology 170, 225-300. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    119. Mair TS, Cripps PJ, Ricketts SW (1993): Diagnostic and prognostic value of serum protein electrophoresis in horses with chronic diarrhoea. Equine Veterinary Journal 25, 324-326. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    120. Mallard BA, Dekkers JC, Ireland MJ, Leslie KE, Sharif S, Lacey-Vankampen C, Wagter L, Wilkie BN (1998): Alteration in immune responsiveness during the peripartum period and its ramification on dairy cow and calf health. Journal of Dairy Science 81, 585-595. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    121. Mariani M, Luzzi E, Proietti D, Mancianti S, Casini D, Costantino P, van Gageldonk P, Berbers G (1998): A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for measuring the levels of serum antibody to Haemophilus influenzae type b. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 5, 667-674. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    122. Matthews AG (1982): Serum protein electrophoresis in horses and ponies. Equine Veterinary Journal 14, 337-342. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    123. McEwan AD, Fisher EW, Selman IE, Penhale WJ (1970): A turbidity test for the estimation of immune globulin levels in neonatal calf serum. Clinica Chimica Acta 27, 155-163. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    124. McGrotty Y, Knottenbelt C (2002): Significance of plasma protein abnormalities in dogs and cats. In Practice 24, 512-517. Go to original source...
    125. Medway W (1979): Bisalbuminemia in a bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Experientia 35, 1158-1159. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    126. Melmed GM (2009): Light chain amyloidosis: a case presentation and review. Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center) 22, 280-283. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    127. Meyer DJ, Harvey JW (eds) (2004): Veterinary Laboratory Medicine: Interpretation and Diagnosis. 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia. 156-168.
    128. Morris D, Johnston JK (2002): Alterations in blood proteins. In: Smith BP (ed.): Large Animal Internal Medicine. 3rd edn. Mosby, St Louis. 426-433.
    129. Nagy O, Tothova C, Nagyova V, Kovac G, Posivak J (2014): Changes in the serum protein electrophoretic pattern in lambs during the first month of life. Acta Veterinaria Brno 83, 187-193. Go to original source...
    130. Nagy O, Tothova C, Nagyova V, Kovac G (2015): Comparison of serum protein electrophoretic pattern in cows and small ruminants. Acta Veterinaria Brno 84, 187-195. Go to original source...
    131. O'Connell TX, Horite TJ, Kasravi B (2005): Understanding and interpreting serum protein electrophoresis. American Family Physician 71, 105-112.
    132. Ochs HD, Smith CI (1996): X-linked agammaglobulinemia. A clinical and molecular analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 75, 287. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    133. Okutucu B, Dincer A, Habib O, Zihnioglu F (2007): Comparison of five methods for determination of total plasma protein concentration. Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods 70, 709-711. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    134. Orro T, Jacobsen S, LePage JP, Niewold T, Alasuutari S, Soveri T (2008): Temporal changes in serum concentrations of acute phase proteins in newborn dairy calves. Veterinary Journal 176, 182-187. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    135. Pagana KD, Pagana TJ (eds) (2006): Mosby's Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests. 4th edn. Mosby Elsevier, St Louis. 1267 pp.
    136. Paltrinieri S, Giordano A, Villani M, Manfrin M, Panzani S, Veronesi MC (2008): Influence of age and foaling on plasma protein electrophoresis and serum amyloid A and their possible role as markers of equine neonatal septicaemia. Veterinary Journal 176, 393-396. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    137. Perille AL, Matus RE (1991): Canine ehrlichiosis in six dogs with persistently increased antibody titers. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 5, 195-198. Go to original source...
    138. Perryman LE, McGuire TC, Banks KL (1983): Animal model of human disease. Infantile X-linked agammaglobulinemia. Agammaglobulinemia in horses. American Journal of Pathology 111, 125-127.
    139. Petersen HH, Nielsen JP, Heegaard PMH (2004): Application of acute phase protein measurements in veterinary clinical chemistry. Veterinary Research 35, 136-187. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    140. Petersen JR, Okorodudu AO, Mohammad A, Payne DA (2003): Capillary electrophoresis and its application in the clinical laboratory. Clinica Chimica Acta 330, 1-30. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    141. Perez JM, Gonzalez FJ, Granados JE, Perez MC, Fandos P, Soriguer RC, Serrano E (2003): Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for Spanish ibex. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39, 209-215. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    142. Pfeiffer NE, McGuire TC (1977): A sodium sulfite-precipitation test for the assessment of colostral immunoglobulin transfer to calves. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 170, 809-811.
    143. Piccione G, Casella S, Giannetto C, Monteverde V (2009): Exercise-induced modifications on haematochemical and electrophoretic parameters during 1600 and 2000 meters trot races in standardbred horses. Journal of Applied Animal Research 35, 131-135. Go to original source...
    144. Piccione G, Messina V, Schembari A, Casella S, Giannetto C, Alberghina D (2011): Pattern of serum protein fractions in dairy cows during different stages of gestation and lactation. Journal of Dairy Research 78, 421-425. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    145. Piccione G, Messina V, Alberghina D, Giannetto C, Caselle S, Assenza A (2012a): Seasonal variations in serum protein fractions of dairy cows during different physiological phases. Comparative Clinical Pathology 21, 1439-1443. Go to original source...
    146. Piccione G, Alberghina D, Marafioti S, Giannetto C, Casella S, Assanza A, Fazio F (2012b): Electrophoretic serum protein fraction profile during the different physiological phases in Comisana ewes. Reproduction in Domestic Animals 47, 591-595. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    147. Pieper R, Gatlin CL, Makusky AJ, Russo PS, Schatz CR, Miller SS, Su Q, McGrath AM, Estock MA, Parmar PP, Zhao M, Huang ST, Zhou J, Wang F, Esquer-Blasco R, Anderson NL, Taylor J, Steiner S (2003): The human serum proteome: display of nearly 3700 chromatographically separated protein spots on two-dimensional electrophoresis gels and identification of 325 distinct proteins. Proteomics 3, 1345-1364. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    148. Prinsen BH (2004): Albumin turnover: experimental approach and its application in health and renal diseases. Clinica Chimica Acta 347, 1-14. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    149. Revillard JP (1980): Significance of beta 2-microglobulin in liver diseases. Vox Sanguinis 38, 339-342. Go to original source...
    150. Riond B, Wenger-Riggenbach B, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Lutz H (2009): Serum protein concentrations from clinically healthy horses determined by agarose gel electrophoresis. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 38, 73-77. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    151. Romdane MN, Romdhane SB, Jemli MH, Metoui K (1992): Electrophoretic profiles of serum proteins in dogs leishmaniasis (in French). Revue de Medecine Veterinarie 143, 753-755.
    152. Rossi S, Bertazzolo W, Paltrinieri S, Giordano A (2008): Cellulose acetate electrophoresis of canine plasma after fibrinogen precipitation by ethanol. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 37, 422-428. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    153. Roubies N, Panouis N, Fytianou A, Katsoulos PD, Giadinis H (2006): Effects of age and reproductive stage on certain serum biochemical parameters of Chios sheep under greek rearing conditions. Journal Veterinary Medicine A 53, 277-281. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    154. Sapan CV, Lundblad RL, Price NC (1999): Colorimetric protein assay techniques. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry 29, 99-108. Go to original source...
    155. Schrader M, Schulz-Knappe P (2001): Peptidomics technologies for human body fluids. Trends in Biotechnology 19, S55-S60. Go to original source...
    156. Schroeder HW, Cavacini L (2010): Structure and function of immunoglobulins. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 125, S41-S52. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    157. Sedlinska M, Krejci J, Vyskocil M (2005): Evaluation of field methods for determining immunoglobulins in sucking foals. Acta Veterinaria Brno 74, 51-58. Go to original source...
    158. Sheldon IM, Noakes DE, Rycroft A, Dobson H (2001): Acute phase protein responses to uterine bacterial contamination in cattle after calving. Veterinary Record 148, 172-175. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    159. Shetty JK, Prakash M, Gopalakarishna K (2007): Bisalbuminemia in adult male with Alzheimer's disease. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 61, 356-357. Go to original source...
    160. Slev PR, Williams BG, Harville TO, Ashwood ER, Bomhorst JA (2008): Efficacy of the detection of the alpha1-antitrypsin "Z" deficiency variant be routine serum protein electrophoresis. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 130, 568-572. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    161. Spano JS, Whitesides JF, Pedersoli WM, Kristal LM (1988): Comparative albumin determinations in ducks, chickens, and turkeys by electrophoretic and dye-binding methods. American Journal of Veterinary Research 49, 325-326.
    162. Stockham SL, Scott MA (2002): Fundamentals of veterinary clinical pathology. Iowa State Press, Ames. 251-276.
    163. Swindle MM, Sistino JJ (2015): Anesthesia, analgesia, and perioperative care. In: Swindle MM, Smith AC (eds): Swine in the Laboratory: Surgery, Anesthesia, Imaging, and Experimental Techniques. 3rd edn. CRC Press, New York. 39-88. Go to original source...
    164. Switzer R, Garrity L (eds) (1999): Experimental biochemistry. 3rd edn. WH Freemand and Company, New York. 451 pp.
    165. Tappin SW, Taylor SS, Tasker S, Dodkin SJ, Papasouliotis K, Murphy KF (2011): Serum protein electrophoresis in 147 dogs. Veterinary Record 168, 456. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    166. Tecles F, Spirane I, Bonfanti U, Ceron JJ, Paltrinieri S (2005): Preliminary studies of serum acute-phase protein concentrations in hematologic and neoplastic diseases of the dog. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 19, 865-870. Go to original source...
    167. Thomas LA, Brown SA (1992): Relationship between colloid osmotic pressure and plasma protein concentration in cattle, horses, dogs, and cats. American Journal of Veterinary Research 53, 2241-2244. Go to original source...
    168. Tiselius A (1937): Electrophoresis of serum globulin II. Electrophoretic analysis of normal and immune sera. Biochemical Journal 31, 1464-1477. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    169. Tothova C, Nagy O, Seidel H, Kovac G (2013a): Serum protein electrophoretic pattern in clinically healthy calves and cows determined by agarose gel electrophoresis. Comparative Clinical Pathology 22, 15-20. Go to original source...
    170. Tothova C, Nagy O, Kovac G (2013b): The serum protein electrophoretic pattern and acute phase protein concentrations in calves with chronic respiratory diseases. Acta Veterinaria Beograd 63, 473-486. Go to original source...
    171. Tothova C, Nagy O, Kovac G (2014): Acute phase proteins and their use in the diagnosis of diseases in ruminants: a review. Veterinarni Medicina 59, 163-180. Go to original source...
    172. Tothova C, Nagy O, Kovac G, Nagyova V (2016a): Changes in the concentrations of serum proteins in calves during the first month of life. Journal of Applied Animal Research 44, 338-346. Go to original source...
    173. Tothova C, Nagy O, Nagyova V, Kovac G (2016b): The concentrations of selected blood serum proteins in calves during the first three months of life. Acta Veterinaria Brno 85, 33-40. Go to original source...
    174. Turba F, Enekel HJ (1950): Elektrophorese von Proteinen in Filterpapier. Naturwissenschaften 37, 93. Go to original source...
    175. Tymchak LL (2010): Amino acids and proteins. In: Bishop ML, Fody EP, Schoeff LE (eds): Clinical Chemistry: Techniques, Principles, Correlations. 6th edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia. 223-265.
    176. Vavricka SR, Burri E, Beglinger C, Degen L, Manz M (2009): Serum protein electrophoresis: An underused but very useful test. Digestion 79, 203-210. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    177. Vreugdenhil ACE, Dentener MA, Snoek AMP, Greve JWM, Buurman WA (1999): Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and serum amyloid A secretion by human intestinal epithelial cells during the acute phase response. Journal of Immunology 163, 2792-2798. Go to original source...
    178. Watanabe A, Matsuzaki S, Moriwaki H, Suzuki K, Nishiguchi S (2004): Problems in serum albumin measurement and clinical significance of albumin microheterogeneity in cirrhotics. Nutrition 20, 351-357. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    179. Weaver DM, Tyler JW, VanMetre DC, Hostetler DE, Barrington GM (2000): Passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulins in calves. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 14, 569-577. Go to original source...
    180. Webb J, Chary P, Northtrup N, Almy F (2008): Erythrophagocytic multiple myeloma in a cat. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 37, 302-307. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    181. Weiss BM, Abadie J, Verma P, Howard RS, Kuehl WM (2009): A monoclonal gammopathy precedes multiple myeloma in most patients. Blood 113, 5418-5422. Go to original source...
    182. Werner LL, Reavill DR (1999): The diagnostic utility of serum protein electrophoresis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice 2, 651-662. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    183. Wilson K, Walker J (eds) (2000): Practical Biochemistry: Principles and Techniques. 5th edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 784 pp.
    184. Woolf A, Nadler CF, Kradel DC (1973): Serum protein electrophoresis in bighorn sheep with chronic pneumonia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 9, 7-11. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    185. Wrotnowski C (1998): The future of plasma proteins. Genetic Engineering News 18, 14.
    186. Yamada O, Tamura K, Yagihara H, Isotani M, Azakami M, Sawada S, Ono K, Washizu T, Bonkobara M (2007): Lightchain multiple myeloma in a cat. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 19, 443-447. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    187. Yoshida Y (1991): Electrophoretic studies on serum proteins in cows with traumatic pericarditis. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 53, 5-11. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    188. Yuki M, Itoh H, Takase K (2010): Serum α-1-acid glycoprotein concentration in clinically healthy puppies and adult dogs and in dogs with various diseases. Veterinary Clinical Pathology 39, 65-71. Go to original source...
    189. Zaia DAM, Zaia CTBV, Lichtig J (1998): Determination of total protein by spectrophotometry: advantages and disadvantages of proposed methods. Quimica Nova 21, 787-793. Go to original source...
    190. Zaia DAM, Marques FR, Zaia CTB (2005): Spectrophotometric determination of total proteins in blood plasma: a comparative study among dye-binding methods. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology 48, 385-388. Go to original source...
    191. Zini E, Bonfanti U, Zatelli A (2004): Diagnostic relevance of qualitative proteinuria evaluated by use of sodium dodecyl sulphate-agarose renal histologic findings in dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research 65, 964-971. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    192. Zor T, Selinger Z (1996): Linearization of the Bradford protein assay increases its sensitivity: theoretical and experimental studies. Analytical Biochemistry 236, 302-308. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY NC 4.0), which permits non-comercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content