Vet Med - Czech, 2026, 71(6):209-221 | DOI: 10.17221/2/2026-VETMED

Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: Mechanisms, regulation and control strategiesReview

P Matlakova ORCID...1,2, K Nedbalcova1
1 Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
2 Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a major global threat to both human and animal health. Within the One Health framework, farm and wild animals serve as critical reservoirs of resistant bacteria and resistance genes, which can disseminate through food, water, and the environment. The excessive and inappropriate use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine exerts selection pressure that fosters the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance. Current mitigation strategies aim to reduce antibiotic consumption and promote prudent use through hygiene measures, vaccination, individualised therapy, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) dosing optimisation, and comprehensive AMR monitoring. European legislation (EU Regulations 2019/4 and 2019/6) provides stringent guidelines on antibiotic prescription, usage, and residue limits. In this context, antibiotic combination therapy represents a promising approach to enhance antimicrobial efficacy, broaden the antibacterial spectrum, and suppress the emergence of resistance by targeting multiple bacterial pathways simultaneously. In addition to developing new drugs, renewed focus on reviving older antimicrobial molecules – supported by updated PK/PD data and optimised dosing – could provide an effective alternative in combating multidrug-resistant pathogens.

Keywords: antibiotics; combination therapy; pharmacodynamics; pharmacokinetics; resistance

Received: January 12, 2026; Revised: March 26, 2026; Accepted: March 31, 2026; Prepublished online: June 25, 2026; Published: June 29, 2026  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Matlakova P, Nedbalcova K. Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: Mechanisms, regulation and control strategies. Veterinární medicína. 2026;71(6):209-221. doi: 10.17221/2/2026-VETMED.
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Aslam B, Khurshid M, Arshad MI, Muzammil S, Rasool M, Yasmeen N, Shah T, Chaudhry TH, Rasool MH, Shahid A, Xueshan X, Baloch Z. Antibiotic resistance: One Health one world outlook. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021 Nov 25;11:771510. Erratum in: Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024 Sep 25;14:1488430. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    2. Bearden DT. Clinical pharmacokinetics of quinupristin/dalfopristin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2004;43(4):239-52. Go to original source...
    3. Bellio P, Fagnani L, Nazzicone L, Celenza G. New and simplified method for drug combination studies by checkerboard assay. MethodsX. 2021 Oct 11;8:101543. Go to original source...
    4. Blair JM, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJ. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2015 Jan;13(1):42-51. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    5. Bognar B, Spohn R, Lazar V. Drug combinations targeting antibiotic resistance. NPJ Antimicrob Resist. 2024 Oct 3;2(1):29. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    6. Bonnet E, Lourtet-Hascoet J. Combination antibiotic therapy for orthopedic infections. Antibiotics (Basel). 2025 Jul 29;14(8):761. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    7. Boretti A, Banik B. Antibiotic resistance: Revisiting older antibiotics for modern bacterial challenges. Chem Biodivers. 2025 Oct;22(10):e00813. Go to original source...
    8. Brennan-Krohn T, Kirby JE. Antimicrobial synergy testing by the inkjet printer-assisted automated checkerboard array and the manual time-kill method. J Vis Exp. 2019 Apr 18;(146):10.3791/58636. Go to original source...
    9. Bush K, Bradford PA. Interplay between β-lactamases and new β-lactamase inhibitors. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2019 May;17(5):295-306. Erratum in: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2019 Jul;17(7):459. Go to original source...
    10. Cai S, Wang N, Xu L, Yan F, Jiang Q, Zhao X, Wang W, Wang H, Jiang L, Cong W, Sheppard SK, Weeks J, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Fu C, Lambert H. Impacts of antibiotic residues in the environment on bacterial resistance and human health in Eastern China: An interdisciplinary mixed-methods study protocol. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Jul 2;19(13):8145. Go to original source...
    11. Caneschi A, Bardhi A, Barbarossa A, Zaghini A. The use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine, a complex phenomenon: A narrative review. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023 Mar 1;12(3):487. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    12. Cao H, Bougouffa S, Park TJ, Lau A, Tong MK, Chow KH, Ho PL. Sharing of antimicrobial resistance genes between humans and food animals. mSystems. 2022 Dec 20;7(6):e0077522. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    13. Cassir N, Rolain JM, Brouqui P. A new strategy to fight antimicrobial resistance: The revival of old antibiotics. Front Microbiol. 2014 Oct 20;5:551. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    14. Darby EM, Trampari E, Siasat P, Gaya MS, Alav I, Webber MA, Blair JMA. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance revisited. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023 May;21(5):280-95. Erratum in: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2024 Apr;22(4):255. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    15. De Briyne N, Atkinson J, Pokludova L, Borriello SP, Price S. Factors influencing antibiotic prescribing habits and use of sensitivity testing amongst veterinarians in Europe. Vet Rec. 2013 Nov 16;173(19):475. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    16. Diamantis S, Retur N, Bertrand B, Lieutier-Colas F, Carenco P, Mondain V, On Behalf Of Promise Professional Community Network On Antimicrobial Resistance. The production of antibiotics must be reoriented: Repositioning old narrow-spectrum antibiotics, developing new microbiome-sparing antibiotics. Antibiotics (Basel). 2022 Jul 8;11(7):924. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    17. Drago L, De Vecchi E, Nicola L, Gismondo MR. In vitro evaluation of antibiotics' combinations for empirical therapy of suspected methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus severe respiratory infections. BMC Infect Dis. 2007 Sep 21;7:111. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    18. EMA - European Medicines Agency. Defined daily doses for animals (DDDvet) and defined course doses for animals (DCDvet): European surveillance of veterinary antimicrobial consumption (ESVAC) [Internet]. Amsterdam: EMA; 2016 Apr 28 [cited 2025 Oct 14]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/other/defined-daily-doses-animals-dddvet-and-defined-course-doses-animals-dcdvet-european-surveillance-veterinary-antimicrobial-consumption-esvac_en.pdf.
    19. EMA - European Medicines Agency. Categorisation of antibiotics in the European Union - Answer to the request from the European Commission for updating the scientific advice on the impact on public health and animal health of the use of antibiotics in animals [Internet]. Amsterdam: EMA; 2019 Jul 10 [cited 2025 Sep 15]. EMA/CVMP/CHMP/682198/2017. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/report/categorisation-antibiotics-european-union-answer-request-european-commission-updating-scientific-advice-impact-public-health-and-animal-health-use-antibiotics-animals_en.pdf.
    20. EMA - European Medicines Agency. Sales of veterinary antimicrobial agents in 31 European countries in 2022: Trends from 2010 to 2022: Thirteenth ESVAC report [Internet]. Amsterdam: EMA; 2023 [cited 2025 Sep 15]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/report/sales-veterinary-antimicrobial-agents-31-european-countries-2022-trends-2010-2022-thirteenth-esvac-report_en.pdf.
    21. EMA - European Medicines Agency. European sales and use of antimicrobials for veterinary medicine: Annual surveillance report for 2023 [Internet]. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; 2025a Mar 31 [cited 2025 Sep 15]. EMA/CVMP/ESUAVET/80289/2025. Available from: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2809/4487470.
    22. EMA - European Medicines Agency. First report on EU-wide sales and use of antimicrobials in animals [Internet]. Amsterdam: EMA; 2025b Mar 31 [cited 2025 Oct 13]. Available from: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/first-report-eu-wide-sales-use-antimicrobials-animals.
    23. Fessler AT, Wang Y, Burbick CR, Diaz-Campos D, Fajt VR, Lawhon SD, Li XZ, Lubbers BV, Maddock K, Miller RA, Papich MG, Simjee S, Sweeney MT, Watts JL, Wu C, Shen J, Schwarz S. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing in veterinary medicine: performance, interpretation of results, best practices and pitfalls. One Health Adv. 2023 Nov;1(1):26. Go to original source...
    24. Frei CR, Wiederhold NP, Burgess DS. Antimicrobial breakpoints for gram-negative aerobic bacteria based on pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic models with Monte Carlo simulation. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008 Mar;61(3):621-8. Go to original source...
    25. Frieri M, Kumar K, Boutin A. Antibiotic resistance. J Infect Public Health. 2017 Jul-Aug;10(4):369-78. Go to original source...
    26. Gauba A, Rahman KM. Evaluation of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in Gram-negative bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023 Nov 3;12(11):1590. Go to original source...
    27. Gustafsson K, Sykes BW, Verwilghen D, Palmers K, Sullivan S, van Galen G. Trimethoprim-sulfonamide: A valid antimicrobial treatment in foals? J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2024 Mar 13;262(6):825-33. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    28. Hoiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M, Molin S, Ciofu O. Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2010 Apr;35(4):322-32. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    29. Hollmann S, Frohme M, Endrullat C, Kremer A, D'Elia D, Regierer B, Nechyporenko A; Cost Action CA15110. Ten simple rules on how to write a standard operating procedure. PLoS Comput Biol. 2020 Sep 3;16(9):e1008095. Go to original source...
    30. Hussaini SMAK, Alam MS, Hasan MM, Sharmy ST, Sarker RR, Yeasmin F, Chouhan CS. Therapeutic efficacy of combined oxytetracycline and streptomycin with benzylpenicillin in naturally Brucella-infected dairy cross-bred cows in Bangladesh. J Vet Med One Health Res. 2023;5(1):97-111. Go to original source...
    31. Ishikawa K, Nakamura T, Kawai F, Ota E, Mori N. Systematic review of beta-lactam vs. beta-lactam plus aminoglycoside combination therapy in neutropenic cancer patients. Cancers (Basel). 2024 May 19;16(10):1934. Erratum in: Cancers (Basel). 2024 Jun 19;16(12):2274. Go to original source...
    32. Jacobsen ABJE, Ogden J, Ekiri AB. Antimicrobial resistance interventions in the animal sector: Scoping review. Front Antibiot. 2023 Aug 31;2:1233698. Go to original source...
    33. Jovic Z, Ristic L, Krtnic D, Nedin-Rankovic G, Cvetanovic A, Simic D. The importance of old antibiotics in overcoming resistance to antibiotics. Acta Med Median. 2019 Dec;58(4):80-4. Go to original source...
    34. Kahn LH, Bergeron G, Bourassa MW, De Vegt B, Gill J, Gomes F, Malouin F, Opengart K, Ritter GD, Singer RS, Storrs C, Topp E. From farm management to bacteriophage therapy: Strategies to reduce antibiotic use in animal agriculture. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2019 Apr;1441(1):31-9. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    35. Kang YR, Chung DR, Ko JH, Huh K, Cho SY, Kang CI, Peck KR. Comparing the synergistic and antagonistic interactions of ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin combined with rifampin against drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: A time-kill assay. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023 Apr 6;12(4):711. Go to original source...
    36. Kasabova S, Hartmann M, Werner N, Kasbohrer A, Kreienbrock L. Used daily dose vs. defined daily dose-contrasting two different methods to measure antibiotic consumption at the farm level. Front Vet Sci. 2019 Apr 24;6:116. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    37. Larkins-Ford J, Aldridge BB. Advances in the design of combination therapies for the treatment of tuberculosis. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 2023 Jan;18(1):83-97. Go to original source...
    38. Larsson DGJ, Flach CF. Antibiotic resistance in the environment. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2022 May;20(5):257-69. Go to original source...
    39. Le Page T, Buczinski S, Dubuc J, Labonte J, Roy JP. Development of a nomogram to estimate the 60-day probability of death or culling due to severe clinical mastitis in dairy cows at first veterinary clinical evaluation. Vet Sci. 2023 Apr 1;10(4):268. Go to original source...
    40. Lloyd DH, Page SW. Antimicrobial stewardship in veterinary medicine. Microbiol Spectr. 2018 May;6(3):10.1128/microbiolspec.arba-0023-2017. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    41. Luo W, Chen D, Wu M, Li Z, Tao Y, Liu Q, Pan Y, Qu W, Yuan Z, Xie S. Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics models of veterinary antimicrobial agents. J Vet Sci. 2019 Sep;20(5):e40. Go to original source...
    42. MacGowan A, Macnaughton E. Antibiotic resistance. Medicine. 2017 Oct;45(10):622-8. Go to original source...
    43. Magreault S, Jaureguy F, Carbonnelle E, Zahar JR. When and how to use MIC in clinical practice? Antibiotics (Basel). 2022 Dec 3;11(12):1748. Go to original source...
    44. Masters PA, O'Bryan TA, Zurlo J, Miller DQ, Joshi N. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole revisited. Arch Intern Med. 2003 Feb 24;163(4):402-10. Go to original source...
    45. McKellar QA, Sanchez Bruni SF, Jones DG. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationships of antimicrobial drugs used in veterinary medicine. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 2004 Dec;27(6):503-14. Go to original source...
    46. More SJ, McCoy F, McAloon CI. The new Veterinary Medicines Regulation: Rising to the challenge. Ir Vet J. 2022 Feb 3;75(1):2. Go to original source...
    47. Nielsen EI, Cars O, Friberg LE. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) indices of antibiotics predicted by a semimechanistic PKPD model: A step toward model-based dose optimization. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011 Oct;55(10):4619-30. Go to original source...
    48. Nogueira R, Baptista CJ, Goncalves L, Coelho AC, Faustino-Rocha AI, Regueiro Purrinos M, Gonzalo-Orden JM, Oliveira PA. The veterinary medicinal products market supply gap: A practical insight based on the Regulation (EU) 2019/6. Rev Cienc Agrovet. 2024;23(1). Go to original source...
    49. Ocampo PS, Lazar V, Papp B, Arnoldini M, Abel zur Wiesch P, Busa-Fekete R, Fekete G, Pal C, Ackermann M, Bonhoeffer S. Antagonism between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics is prevalent. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014 Aug;58(8):4573-82. Go to original source...
    50. Onita T, Ishihara N, Yano T. PK/PD-guided strategies for appropriate antibiotic use in the era of antimicrobial resistance. Antibiotics (Basel). 2025 Jan 14;14(1):92. Go to original source...
    51. Palma E, Tilocca B, Roncada P. Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: An overview. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Mar 11;21(6):1914. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    52. Papich MG. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modeling and the rational selection of dosage regimes for the prudent use of antimicrobial drugs. Vet Microbiol. 2014 Jul 16;171(3-4):480-6. Go to original source...
    53. Paranos P, Vourli S, Pournaras S, Meletiadis J. Assessing clinical potential of old antibiotics against severe infections by multi-drug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria using in silico modelling. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2022 Nov 30;15(12):1501. Go to original source...
    54. Patel SJ, Wellington M, Shah RM, Ferreira MJ. Antibiotic stewardship in food-producing animals: Challenges, progress, and opportunities. Clin Ther. 2020 Sep;42(9):1649-58. Go to original source...
    55. Pitman SK, Hoang UTP, Wi CH, Alsheikh M, Hiner DA, Percival KM. Revisiting oral fluoroquinolone and multivalent cation drug-drug interactions: Are they still relevant? Antibiotics (Basel). 2019 Jul 31;8(3):108. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    56. Pitt SJ, Gunn A. The One Health concept. Br J Biomed Sci. 2024 Feb 15;81:12366. Go to original source...
    57. Punch R, Azani R, Ellison C, Majury A, Hynds PD, Payne SJ, Brown RS. The surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in wastewater from a One Health perspective: A global scoping and temporal review (2014-2024). One Health. 2025 Jul 14;21:101139. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    58. Raasch S, Collineau L, Postma M, Backhans A, Sjolund M, Belloc C, Emanuelson U, Beilage EG, Stark K, Dewulf J; on the behalf of the MINAPIG Consortium. Effectiveness of alternative measures to reduce antimicrobial usage in pig production in four European countries. Porcine Health Manag. 2020 Mar 2;6:6. Go to original source...
    59. Radu AF, Bungau SG, Corb Aron RA, Tarce AG, Bodog R, Bodog TM, Radu A. Deciphering the intricate interplay in the framework of antibiotic-drug interactions: A narrative review. Antibiotics (Basel). 2024 Oct 5;13(10):938. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    60. Rajput P, Nahar KS, Rahman KM. Evaluation of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in Gram-positive bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel). 2024 Dec 8;13(12):1197. Go to original source...
    61. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2019/4 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the manufacture, placing on the market and use of medicated feed. Off J Eur Union. 2019a;L 4:1-23.
    62. European Parliament and Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2019/6 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on veterinary medicinal products. Off J Eur Union. 2019b;L 4:43-167.
    63. Reygaert WC. An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria. AIMS Microbiol. 2018 Jun 26;4(3):482-501. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    64. Rychshanova R, Mendybayeva A, Micinski B, Mamiyev N, Shevchenko P, Bermukhametov Z, Orzechowski B, Micinski J. Antibiotic resistance and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from dairy cows at the stage of subclinical mastitis in northern Kazakhstan. Arch Anim Breed. 2022 Dec 8;65(4):439-48. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    65. Schmerold I, van Geijlswijk I, Gehring R. European regulations on the use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2023 Oct 1;189:106473. Go to original source...
    66. Sucena Afonso J, El Tholth M, Mcintyre KM, Carmo LP, Coyne L, Manriquez D, Raboisson D, Lhermie G, Rushton J. Strategies to reduce antimicrobials in livestock and aquaculture, and their impact under field conditions: A structured scoping literature review. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2024 Jan 3;79(1):11-26. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    67. Sueke H, Kaye SB, Neal T, Hall A, Tuft S, Parry CM. An in vitro investigation of synergy or antagonism between antimicrobial combinations against isolates from bacterial keratitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010;51(8):4151-5. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    68. Sullivan GJ, Delgado NN, Maharjan R, Cain AK. How antibiotics work together: Molecular mechanisms behind combination therapy. Curr Opin Microbiol. 2020 Oct;57:31-40. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    69. Swaminathan P, Sen S, Murugesan A, Prasad AA. Compounds and methods to resensitize antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Mediterr J Infect Microb Antimicrob. 2021;10:46. Go to original source...
    70. Tangden T. Combination antibiotic therapy for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Ups J Med Sci. 2014 May;119(2):149-53. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    71. Tenson T, Lovmar M, Ehrenberg M. The mechanism of action of macrolides, lincosamides and streptogramin B reveals the nascent peptide exit path in the ribosome. J Mol Biol. 2003 Jul 25;330(5):1005-14. Go to original source...
    72. Theuretzbacher U, Van Bambeke F, Canton R, Giske CG, Mouton JW, Nation RL, Paul M, Turnidge JD, Kahlmeter G. Reviving old antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015 Aug;70(8):2177-81. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    73. Toutain PL, Pelligand L, Lees P, Bousquet-Melou A, Ferran AA, Turnidge JD. The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic paradigm for antimicrobial drugs in veterinary medicine: Recent advances and critical appraisal. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 2021 Mar;44(2):172-200. Go to original source...
    74. Trif E, Cerbu C, Olah D, Zablau SD, Spinu M, Potarniche AV, Pall E, Brudasca F. Old antibiotics can learn new ways: A systematic review of florfenicol use in veterinary medicine and future perspectives using nanotechnology. Animals (Basel). 2023 May 19;13(10):1695. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    75. Tufa TB, Guta A, Tufa TB, Nigussie D, Beyi AF, Gutema FD, Regassa F. Efficacy of penicillin-streptomycin brands against Staphylococcus aureus: Concordance between veterinary clinicians' perception and the realities. Antibiotics (Basel). 2023 Mar 14;12(3):570. Go to original source...
    76. Van Boeckel TP, Brower C, Gilbert M, Grenfell BT, Levin SA, Robinson TP, Teillant A, Laxminarayan R. Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015 May 5;112(18):5649-54. Go to original source...
    77. Vivekanandan KE, Kumar PV, Jaysree RC, Rajeshwari T. Exploring molecular mechanisms of drug resistance in bacteria and progressions in CRISPR/Cas9-based genome expurgation solutions. Glob Med Genet. 2025 Feb 16;12(2):100042. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    78. Woolhouse MEJ. One Health approaches to tackling antimicrobial resistance. Sci One Health. 2024 Oct 21;3:100082. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    79. Yu Y, Fang JT, Zheng M, Zhang Q, Walsh TR, Liao XP, Sun J, Liu YH. Combination therapy strategies against multiple-resistant Streptococcus suis. Front Pharmacol. 2018 May 15;9:489. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    80. Zayyad H, Eliakim-Raz N, Leibovici L, Paul M. Revival of old antibiotics: Needs, the state of evidence and expectations. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2017 May;49(5):536-41. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0.), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content